The Short Cut Home

Peter and his friends were discussing the rumours about a street which is a shortcut from school to his house. They were talking about how the street is deserted, with only one house in the middle. When they were walking home from school the pace of Peter's steps increased as they went past it. Peter felt a shiver going down his spine. The street was pitch black as there were no streetlights. There were wooden planks boarding up the windows. The next day, Peter was going home from school. It was dark and he was walking alone as he had got an hour's detention after school for swearing at a teacher. He thought to himself that he should take the shortcut home as he was late. Suddenly he stopped. He thought about the things his friends had been talking about. â€Å"A murder happened here 2 days ago† Laura said. He was thinking should he go or not. â€Å"All that stuff is nonsense† he thought and stepped into the dark, pitched black street. At first it felt normal, but as he kept on going he saw a strange light flicker in the old, abandoned house. He jumped and stopped. Should he go back or keep walking? Peter deep in his thoughts went nearer to the house. He didn't know what he was thinking. As he reached nearer and nearer to the house, he felt his neck tingle. The window was high so Peter got a small box and placed in under the sill. He looked and peeped through a small hole in the plank. He could see out of the corner of his eye a man. A thin man, tall with a long overcoat on. He had a shiny kitchen knife. Peter suddenly saw a woman on the floor with tape masked over her mouth. Her hands and feet were tied. â€Å"BANG!† Peter fell off the box. The man heard the sound and ran to the front door. Peter swiftly went to the back of the house and hid behind a bush. The man shouted â€Å"Who's there?!† Peter, not knowing what he should do stayed deadly still. He felt the footsteps getting closer and closer. Thoughts were running through his mind. â€Å"Why did I come here? What should I do?† Run or stay? If he ran he might get caught but he might still get caught just staying there. The man kept getting closer and closer. Peter could hear his heart beating. Then the footsteps suddenly stopped. Peter was sure he was still there but at the same time he was sure that he had gone. He peeped over bush. The man was walking back, checking the grounds as he was going. Peter desperate to get out of there ran as fast as he could. The man stealthily shifted round and saw a glimpse of Peter's face. He ran after Peter. Peter was running as fast as he could, trying to catch his breath. The man reached out and he was about two-three centimetres away from him. He grabbed Peter. He was scared to death and he burst into tears. The man took Peter quickly into his house. As Peter entered he could see his own breath. It was cold. Peter felt like he was entering a freezer. He saw the woman lying on the floor. Her mouth masked and her hands and feet tied together. There were knives on the floor next to the woman. Peter jumped and screamed. The man put his hand over Peter's mouth and commanded him to â€Å"Shut up or you'll get the same thing as the woman.† Peter slowly calmed down and got his breath back. Thoughts were running through his mind. Should he go for the door? What did he mean by saying â€Å"the same thing as the woman?† Was he going to let him go? Maybe it was just a plan to shut him up. â€Å"Look, this is the important thing. You've got to promise me something† explained the man. Peter nodded his head. â€Å"If I let you go, you've got to promise not to tell a soul about what you saw in this house. Even if you mention one tiny bit then I'm coming after you.† Peter nodded in fear. â€Å"I'll be onto you faster than a dog on a cat. Don't underestimate me lad. If you cross me then you've had it. Understood?† shouted the man. Peter let out a low grunt. The man led Peter to the door and let him go. He ran as fast as he could until the dark, pitched black street disappeared and he reached the gentle, warm glow of the streetlights. When Peter got home he went upstairs and quickly got into his bed. Peter woke up the next day feeling much better. He went to school with a big bright smile on his face looking like nothing happened to him. As he reached school he decided that he should tell his mates what happened as he thought the man doesn't even know where he lives so how can he do anything to him? His mates didn't believe him at first but eventually they did. Peter wasn't scared of the man anymore. That evening, when Peter reached home after school, his phone rang. He picked it up. â€Å"Hello†, Peter said. â€Å"You're dead†, barked a hard voice. Peter realised it was the man from the house. â€Å"I know where you live and I'm coming to get you!†

Cognitive Ability

Journal of Applied Psychology 2010, Vol. 95, No. 5, 889 –901  © 2010 American Psychological Association 0021-9010/10/$12. 00 DOI: 10. 1037/a0019985 Get Smarty Pants: Cognitive Ability, Personality, and Victimization Eugene Kim and Theresa M. Glomb University of Minnesota Drawing on the victim precipitation model, this study provides an empirical investigation of the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization at work. We propose that people high in cognitive ability are more prone to victimization.In this study, we also examine the direct and moderating effects of victims’ personality traits, specifically the 2 interpersonally oriented personality dimensions of agency and communion. Results support the direct positive relationship of cognitive ability and victimization. The positive relationship between high cognitive ability and victimization is moderated by the victims’ personality traits; agency personality traits strengthen the relationship of cognitive ability and victimization, whereas communion personality traits weaken this relationship.Keywords: cognitive ability, victimization, personality, agency, communion Recently, a Seattle Times article described the victimization of Suzuki Ichiro, a high-ability baseball player who achieved 200 hits for 8 consecutive years and was the 2007 All Star Game Most Valuable Player (see Baker, 2008). The article reported that his teammates from the Seattle Mariners stated they â€Å"really dislike him† and wanted to â€Å"knock him out† because this high-ability player cares more about individual records than team records.A popular press article (Bruzzese, 2002) reported that victims of workplace bullying are often employees who are â€Å"smart† and â€Å"talented,† and organizations that fail to prevent victimization against these talented employees will experience their turnover, decreases in productivity, and increases in health care costs (see also Murp hy, 2006). Similarly, a survey of workplace victimization suggests that â€Å"bright† people are often targets of interpersonal aggression because of their high level of ability (Namie & Namie, 2000).In the school context, research by Peterson and Ray (2006a, 2006b) on gifted children suggests that many high-ability students experience bullying in school because of their intellectual capability. Although each of the above examples provides a mere glimpse into the phenomena of victimization, together they suggest that ability may be a critical precipitating factor in victimization. However, there is limited research attention to the possibility that ability, specifically cognitive ability, may be associated with being a target of victimization—the possibility of â€Å"smart victims. Given that Brand (1987) posited â€Å"cognitive ability is to psychol- This article was published Online First August 16, 2010. Eugene Kim and Theresa M. Glomb, Department of Human Resourc es and Industrial Relations, Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2009 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana.We are grateful to Michelle Duffy, Paul Sackett, and the participants of the Center for Human Resources and Labor Studies Workshop for comments on earlier versions of this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Eugene Kim, Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota, 321 19th Avenue South, Room 3-300, Minneapolis, MN 55455. E-mail: [email  protected] umn. edu 889 ogy as carbon is to chemistry† (p. 257), it is surprising that cognitive ability has not received attention in the workplace victimization literature.This study takes an important first step in establishing the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization in an organizational context; it builds the scholarly knowledge base of workplac e victimization and suggests that smart victims may be important to consider in attempts to prevent workplace victimization. In doing so, it makes contributions to the literature on cognitive ability, victimization, and an emerging theme in management research suggesting that victims may precipitate aggression from others in the workplace (for review, see Aquino & Thau, 2009).We outline these contributions below. First, this study suggests an exception to the generally accepted idea that cognitive ability is associated with various positive outcomes. Previous research confirming that cognitive ability predicts many job and real-life outcomes is plentiful (see Brand, 1987; Jensen, 1998; Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2004; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998); however, typically these outcomes are favorable. In comparison, we propose victimization, a negative outcome, will be higher for those high in cognitive ability.Understanding the relationship between cognitive ability and workplace victimization is particularly relevant because cognitive ability is used in selection decisions (Heneman & Judge, 2005) and is strongly related to skill and knowledge acquisition, task performance, and creativity at work (Kuncel et al. , 2004). Thus, understanding workplace victimization for those high in cognitive ability can reduce the risk of negative outcomes for these highly desirable employees, including decreased motivation, job satisfaction, and task performance (Glomb, 2002, in press) as well as lower team and organizational performance (Aquino & Thau, 2009).Second, this study extends the scope of the victim precipitation model, the idea that victims either intentionally or unintentionally provoke potential perpetrators. The limited application of the victim precipitation model emphasizes submissive and provocative victim characteristics (Aquino, 2000; Olweus, 1993) but has not posed the possibility of smart victims (for exceptions, see Namie & Namie, 2000; Peterson & Ray, 2006a, 2006b). By positing and testing the idea that smart victims may also adhere to the victim 890 KIM AND GLOMB recipitation model, we extend this theoretical framework beyond the typical submissive and provocative victim typologies. Third, we extend previous research by considering two basic personality dimensions—agency and communion (Digman, 1997; Wiggins, 1991)—and their interplay with cognitive ability and victimization. According to Bakan (1966), agency is defined as individualization in a group, and it involves independence, dominance, and personal growth; communion is defined as integration of the individual in a group, and it involves cooperation, attachment, and caring (see alsoWiggins, 1991). The original aim of agency and communion personality traits was to understand and distinguish interpersonal behaviors between individuals (Wiggins, 1991), thereby making agency and communion especially relevant to workplace victimization in which the interpersonal relationship of perpetrators and victims is critical for understanding victimization motives (see Schafer, 1977).Drawing primarily on the theory of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), we propose that communion is negatively related to victimization and also buffers the relationship of cognitive ability and victimization, whereas agency is positively related to victimization and also strengthens the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization. In summary, in this study we advance theoretical and empirical research on workplace victimization by examining the role of cognitive ability in precipitating victimization at work and how personality traits linked to more favorable interpersonal interactions (i. e. agency and communion) may have direct and moderating effects on victimization. Workplace Victimization The prevalence of harmful behaviors among employees has been reflected in a growing body of academic research (e. g. , Aquino & Thau, 2009; Barling, Dupre, & Kelloway, 2009; Bowl? ing & Bee hr, 2006; Douglas et al. , 2008; Glomb, Steel, & Arvey, 2002; Hershcovis et al. , 2007; Neuman & Baron, 2005; Sackett & DeVore, 2001). Researchers have examined interpersonal workplace aggression—any form of interpersonal behavior to harm, injure, or discomfort the target at work (Baron & Richardson, 1994; Glomb, 2002)—at the individual level (e. . , Baron & Neuman, 1996) and have also extended theoretical and empirical frameworks to consider group-level (e. g. , Glomb & Liao, 2003) and dyadic (e. g. , Andersson & Pearson, 1999) relationships. Drawing on theories of victimization (e. g. , Curtis, 1974; Schafer, 1968; Sparks, Genn, & Dodd, 1977), researchers have also examined workplace victimization—the self-perception of being a target of interpersonal aggression at work (Aquino, Grover, Bradfield, & Allen, 1999; Aquino & Thau, 2009)—at the individual level (e. g. , Aquino et al. 1999; Glomb, 2002), group level (e. g. , Aquino & Byron, 2002), and dyadic level (e. g. , Aquino & Lamertz, 2004). Drawing on criminology theory in which victim precipitation (Curtis, 1974) and victim elements (Schafer, 1968) are studied, researchers have suggested typical characteristics of victims. For example, Olweus’s (1978, 1993) work in school settings resulted in the proposition of two types of victims. One type of victim is labeled submissive victim and is more anxious, cautious, quiet, and sensitive than other students.In contrast to submissive victims, some students who show highly aggressive behaviors can also become the targets of aggression; Olweus (1993) referred to them as provocative victims. Although Olweus’s research was in a school setting, similar themes of victim types have been suggested in organizational contexts. For example, Aquino and colleagues (Aquino & Bradfield, 2000; Aquino & Byron, 2002; Aquino et al. , 1999) posited that self-determination, aggressiveness, dominating interpersonal behavior, and negative affect ivity are typical characteristics of victims.Individuals low in self-determination are more likely to be targets of aggression (e. g. , Aquino et al. , 1999) and may be likened to submissive victims. Individuals high in aggressiveness (e. g. , Aquino & Bradfield, 2000) and dominating interpersonal behavior (e. g. , Aquino & Byron, 2002) may be likened to provocative victims. Individuals high in negative affectivity may be likened to either submissive or provocative victims because negative affectivity is related to either insecurity and anxiety or hostility and aggression (e. . , Aquino & Bradfield, 2000; Aquino et al. , 1999). In other words, previous research suggests that certain types of individuals, either submissive or aggressive people, may be more frequent targets of aggression in both school and organizational contexts. Although existing research has enhanced the understanding of victimization, there is limited attention to the role of an important individual differenceâ₠¬â€ cognitive ability (for possible exceptions, see Namie & Namie, 2000; Peterson & Ray, 2006a, 2006b).Peterson and Ray (2006b) showed that many smart students experienced bullying in school contexts and that intellectual capability is one of the most frequently reported reasons for being bullied. In their study, 36% of smart students were called derogatory names (e. g. , dork, geek, nerd, smarty, idiot, moron, retard, dumb), and 19% of them were teased about their grades and intelligence. According to Peterson and Ray’s (2006a) qualitative study, some high-ability students reported that the envy of lowability students contributes to targeting smart students.Interviewees stated that â€Å"gifted kids have the upper hand in classrooms† and â€Å"good kids usually get what they want† (p. 257). In addition, some students responded that competition between gifted students contributes to targeting one another. One interviewee reported being the target of bullying fr om â€Å"other gifted kids who didn’t like that I was smarter than they were† (p. 258). One exception to the lack of research on ability and victimization in organizational contexts is a survey of working adults by Namie and Namie (2000).Although this study was not focused on the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization, their survey data provide insight into this issue. In their survey, more than 20% of survey participants (i. e. , targets and witnesses) responded that bright people were targets of interpersonal aggression, reporting that perpetrators envied the targets’ high level of competence and abilities (21%) and that perpetrators treated them as competitors or challengers who threatened their superiority (31%).Literature on school bullying among gifted children, employee reports of smart victims, and the submissive/provocative victim typology suggest that understanding the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization in an org anizational context is valuable. Linking Cognitive Ability and Victimization The victim precipitation model (e. g. , Amir, 1967; Curtis, 1974; Gottfredson, 1981; Schafer, 1968, 1977; Sparks et al. , 1977) undergirds the proposed relationship between cognitive ability and victimization. The core argument of the model is that victimsCOGNITIVE ABILITY AND VICTIMIZATION 891 exhibit behavioral tendencies (either intentional or unintentional) that provoke potential perpetrators to respond to them with harmful behaviors (see Aquino et al. , 1999; Schafer, 1977). In other words, at a minimum, victims unknowingly are at risk of victimization for their individual characteristics; at a maximum, individual characteristics lead to behaviors that elicit victimization from potential perpetrators. Cognitive ability may function as a â€Å"victim precipitator† for several reasons.First, the desirable characteristics of high-cognitive employees may unintentionally instigate other employees to react to them with harmful behaviors. As noted above, cognitive ability plays a central role in the prediction of myriad important workplace outcomes, including task performance, training performance, counterproductive work behavior, creativity, and career success (e. g. , Dilchert, Ones, Davis, & Rostow, 2007; Jensen, 1998; Judge, Higgins, Thoreson, & Barrick, 1999; Kuncel et al. , 2004; Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1994; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998).For example, the validity of cognitive ability in predicting task performance, training performance, and creativity is . 51, . 57 (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998), and . 36 (Kuncel et al. , 2004), respectively. However, these favorable outcomes may also create conditions for victimization. Such positive outcomes of highcognitive-ability employees make them more likely to be targets of an upward or a lateral social comparison process within a work group because individuals choose a â€Å"standard setter† who has high ability as a comparative target (Feldman & Ruble, 1981; Festinger, 1954).As a consequence, these comparisons may elicit negative cognitive and affective states, such as lowered self-evaluation and emotions of envy, shame, hostility, and interpersonal competition (e. g. , Garcia, Tor, Gonzalez, 2006; Smith, 2000; Tesser, Millar, & Moore, 1988), which in turn increase the likelihood of becoming the target of victimization.In other words, the positive characteristics of high-cognitive-ability employees unintentionally place them at risk of being a target because others want to restore their lowered self-evaluation and negative emotions following comparison (see Fein & Spencer, 1997; Smith, 1991). Schafer (1977) categorized this type of victim as someone who has done nothing against the perpetrators but whose unintentional behaviors or outcomes instigate the perpetrators to commit aggressive behaviors toward the victim.Second, the favorable characteristics of high-cognitive-abi lity employees may instigate other employees within a work group to react to them with harming behaviors in a more intentional way. An experimental study by Menon and Thompson (2007) found that individuals in higher (relative) social comparison positions are more likely to overestimate that they are a threat to others. This perceptual bias leads them to experience uncomfortable interpersonal relationships as â€Å"asymmetries in threat appraisal [strain] social interactions during a conflict situation† (p. 6). In their study, people who regarded themselves as threatening elicited less favorable reactions from a counterpart and lower satisfaction with the interaction, even though these perceptions about threat were not communicated explicitly during the interaction. In an organizational context, because of the positive work outcomes of highcognitive-ability employees, they are more likely to have favorable views of themselves, to perceive that others are threatened by them, an d to distrust others’ motives (i. e. , self-enhancing bias; Menon & Thompson, 2007).In other words, high-cognitive employees may overestimate the comparison threat they pose to other group members, which may result in a change in behaviors—for example, avoidance or condescension—toward other group members. This change in behavior then elicits harming behaviors from others (see Duffy, Shaw, & Schaubroeck, 2008). In summary, drawing on the victim precipitation model, we argue that high-cognitive-ability employees may instigate other individuals to respond to them with interpersonally aggressive behaviors.First, high-cognitive-ability employees may unintentionally provoke potential perpetrators because of their position as upward or lateral social comparison targets, thereby fostering negative affective and cognitive states in others who turn to harming behaviors. Second, high-cognitive-ability employees may provoke potential perpetrators because of their overestim ates of how threatening they are, which results in changed behaviors against coworkers that promote more negative interactions.Accordingly, we hypothesized the following: Hypothesis 1: High cognitive ability is positively related to victimization. We note that the current study is unable to address the specific mechanism for the association between cognitive ability and victimization. Rather, we propose likely theoretical mechanisms and conduct empirical tests that would lend support for this association without testing the exact meditational processes. The Role of Personality Traits: Agency and CommunionAccording to Bakan (1966), there are â€Å"two fundamental modalities in the existence of living forms, agency for the existence of an organism as an individual and communion for the participation of the individual in some larger organism of which the individual is part [emphasis added]† (p. 14). Wiggins (1991) integrated Bakan’s idea into the personality literature, d efining agency and communion as â€Å"the condition of being a differentiated individual and the condition of being part of a larger social or spiritual entity [emphasis added]† (p. 9), and proposed that the agency– communion model is relevant to understand and distinguish interpersonal behaviors between individuals. Personality researchers have used agency and communion as umbrella terms that broadly cover self-oriented terms (including independence, egoistic bias, ambition, self-competence, personal growth, and instrumentality) versus group-oriented terms (including cooperation, attachment, consideration, warmth, nurturance, and socialization), although these constructs are not exactly the same (e. g. Abele & Wojciszke, 2007; Digman, 1997; Wiggins, 1991). Previous research suggested that two broad dimensions—akin to agency and communion—are independent higher order dimensions of personality in the interpersonal circumplex (e. g. , Blackburn, Renwick, Do nnelly, & Logan, 2004; Digman, 1997; Wiggins, 1991). With regard to the five-factor model of personality, Trapnell and Wiggins (1990) found that agency corresponds primarily to the dominance aspect of extraversion and that communion corresponds primarily to agreeableness (see also Peabody & Goldberg, 1989; Wiggins, 1991).Digman (1997) has also derived two independent higher order factors that correspond to an agency and communion taxonomy; agency corresponds to extraversion and openness (i. e. , personal growth), and communion corresponds to agreeableness, con- 892 KIM AND GLOMB scientiousness, and emotional stability (i. e. , socialization; see also John, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1996). Recently, Abele and Wojciszke (2007) confirmed previous studies by showing that a pool of 300 trait items (e. g. , communion, collectivism, morality, and femininity items for communion; agency, individualism, competence, and masculinity items for agency) is educed to the two broad dimensions of agency and communion. This idea is well summarized by Abele and Wojciszke, who stated the following: There is a long tradition in social and personality psychology to distinguish fundamental dimensions for the description of persons and groups: social and intellectual desirability, individualism and collectivism, independent and interdependent self, competence and morality, competence and warmth, dominance and nurturance, masculinity and femininity, and so on.Following Bakan (1966), we call these fundamental dimensions agency and communion. (p. 759) a similar vein, Aquino and Bommer (2003) showed that high levels of organizational citizenship behavior decreases victimization; presumably, this relationship may be due to a positive reciprocity norm. Overall, targets who have high agency personality traits do not engage in the positive reciprocity cycle and are more likely to be engaged in the negative reciprocity circle, which increases the likelihood of victimization.Targets who have high c ommunion personality traits are more likely to be engaged in the positive reciprocity circle with coworkers, which decreases the likelihood of victimization. Therefore, we hypothesized the following: Hypothesis 2: High agency is positively related to victimization. Hypothesis 3: High communion is negatively related to victimization. Integrating the victim precipitation model with theories of reciprocity, we propose the moderating roles of agency and communion personality traits on the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization.Although high levels of cognitive ability and competence may make someone predisposed to victimization, this may depend on their interpersonal interactions with others as influenced by their agency and communion personality traits. Because agency-driven behaviors do not build a norm of positive reciprocity or possibly initiate a norm of negative reciprocity, it strengthens the positive relationship between targets’ cognitive ability and vi ctimization. For example, employees who are high in cognitive ability and agency traits may use their talent to increase individual performance, which may negatively impact other group members.Conversely, because communion-driven behaviors initiate a norm of positive reciprocity between the giver and the taker, it circumvents or buffers the positive relationship between targets’ cognitive ability and victimization. For example, employees who are high in both cognitive ability and communion traits may use their talent to increase group performance (e. g. , help coworkers with workloads or problems). Such behaviors contribute to build the positive reciprocity cycle with coworkers and thereby weaken the likelihood of victimization because of high cognitive ability.Put simply, being smart and focused on oneself will lead to more victimization, but being smart and focused on group members will lead to less victimization. Although there is no direct empirical evidence suggesting an interactive effect of cognitive ability and agency and communion traits on victimization, recent studies hint at the plausibility of such an effect. For example, Fiske, Cuddy, and Glick (2006) suggested that people differentiate one another by competence as well as likeability, which in turn affects their cognitive and affective content of interpersonal perception (see also Collins, 1981).Similarly, Casciaro and Lobo (2005) suggested the importance of competence and likeability in a work setting; when individuals were high in both competence and likeability, coworkers treated them as â€Å"lovable stars,† but when individuals were high in competence and low in likeability, coworkers treated them as â€Å"competent jerks. † Consistent with the previous conceptual arguments, Casciaro and Lobo (2008) showed that individuals who are competent and likeable form more task interaction networks, whereas individuals who are competent and dislikeable fail to form taskPut simply , agency and communion personality traits are independent multidimensional constructs (Saragovi, Koestner, Dio, & Aube, 1997) that reflect self-oriented and group-oriented behaviors. Given that behaviors are rooted in personality traits (see Fleeson, 2001; Hogan & Holland, 2003; Moskowitz & Cote, 1995) and that agency and communion personality traits serve to describe interpersonal behaviors (Wiggins, 1991), we propose that individuals who have more agency traits, such as independence, egoistic bias, ambition, and self-competence, are involved in agency-driven behaviors, such as seeking goals and being less concerned about others.Conversely, individuals who have more communion traits, such as communality, socialization, consideration, and warmth, are involved in communion-driven behaviors, such as helping and nurturing coworkers and developing harmonious interpersonal relationships with coworkers. The direct relationship between agency and communion personality traits and victimizat ion is supported by theories of reciprocity. Agency-driven behaviors do not build a norm of positive reciprocity, at best (Axelrod, 1984), and initiate a norm of negative reciprocity, at worst (Andersson & Pearson, 1999).In the absence of a norm of positive reciprocity, employees do not feel obligated to respond to (positive) actions with other positive actions. Individuals high in agency engage in agency-driven behaviors, which may be at the expense of and harmful to others. A norm of negative reciprocity will perpetuate these harmful behaviors. Thus, aggressive behaviors against individuals who are high in agency may, in fact, increase. This implies higher victimization for people who have agency traits that either block the positive reciprocity norm or elicit the negative reciprocity norm through agency-driven behaviors.Conversely, communion-driven behaviors initiate a norm of positive reciprocity between the giver and the taker (Gouldner, 1960). In other words, the taker general ly responds to the communion-driven behavior with another communion-driven behavior toward the giver. After building a norm of positive reciprocity, both givers and takers are reluctant to violate this relationship through harming one another because it breaks the social norm and promotes a reputation for being untrustworthy, unkind, and unthankful (Cialdini, 2001; Gouldner, 1960).Thus, individuals who are high in communion traits engage in communion-driven behaviors and perpetuate a norm of positive reciprocity in which they are less likely to be the targets of interpersonal aggression. In COGNITIVE ABILITY AND VICTIMIZATION 893 interaction networks. Although failure to form task networks with â€Å"competent jerks† is distinct from victimizing them, this work does suggest withholding something favorable from them—a behavior that is consistent with some passive, indirect forms of victimization examined here (e. . , withholding information or resources). In line with t his research, we predict that two interpersonally oriented personality dimensions that affect likeability play a critical role in the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization; smart individuals who are high in agency traits may experience more victimization, whereas smart individuals who are high in communion traits may experience less victimization.Therefore, we hypothesized the following: Hypothesis 4: The relationship between cognitive ability and victimization is moderated by agency, such that when targets are high in cognitive ability, targets high in agency will experience more victimization than those lower on agency. Hypothesis 5: The relationship between cognitive ability and victimization is moderated by communion, such that when targets are high in cognitive ability, targets high in communion will experience less victimization than those lower on communion.Method Participants and Procedure Two hundred and seventeen employees of an organization that manages health care homes for individuals with disabilities voluntarily completed paper-and-pencil surveys during on-site survey administration with researchers. 1 Participants were guaranteed confidentiality. Employees within a health care home worked closely with one another to provide excellent care and service for the residents, and they constitute our work groups.Of the respondents, 95% were Caucasian, 74% were women, and 35% were employed full time. Average tenure was 22 months, and average age was 24 years. The organization had administered the Wonderlic Personnel Test (Wonderlic, 1984) and the California Psychological Inventory (CPI; Gough & Bradley, 1996) to job applicants prior to hire, and the Wonderlic and CPI scores of our respondents were linked to the survey data from the current study using identifiers. Fifty employees who did not have Wonderlic and CPI scores were excluded.After listwise deletion of individuals with incomplete information, the final sample was composed of 133 employees in 27 groups (i. e. , health care homes). Group size ranged from two to 10 members (average 4. 93). Comparisons between those respondents who were in our final sample and those who were deleted because of missing data revealed only one significant difference; excluded employees had slightly lower negative affectivity scores ( p . 05). Measures Cognitive ability. Cognitive ability was assessed using the Wonderlic Personnel Test prior to hire.The Wonderlic Personnel Test is a 50-item, 12–20-min omnibus test of intelligence, and it was originally designed to measure general mental ability for personnel selection. The manual reports that test–retest reliability ranges from . 82 to . 94 and that interform reliabilities range from . 73 to . 95 (Wonderlic, 1984). Victimization. Victimization was assessed using the 20-item Aggressive Experiences Scale (AES)-Target scale (Glomb, in press; Glomb & Liao, 2003). Illustrative items are â€Å"how often has a coworker or supervisor made angry gestures toward you? â€Å"how often has a coworker or supervisor spread rumors about you? † and â€Å"how often has a coworker or supervisor belittled your opinions in front of others? † Respondents indicated the frequency of their victimization experience using a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (once a week or more). One item was removed because of zero variance (â€Å"how often has a coworker or supervisor physically assaulted you? †). The coefficient alpha of the AESTarget scale was . 87. Agency and communion.At present, there are not commonly accepted assessments of agency and communion, perhaps because of their designation as higher order constructs. Agency and communion have been measured by the Masculinity and Femininity scales from several personality inventories, including the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1974) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974; for review, see Helgeson, 1994; Saragovi et al. , 1997). Agency and communion have also been measured using the five-factor model; Wiggins (1991) suggested using the Extraversion (i. e. dominance facet only) and Agreeableness scales because these capture a substantial portion of variance in agency and communion, respectively (for empirical support, see also Peabody & Goldberg, 1989; Trapnell & Wiggins, 1990). Also, using the Big Five framework, Digman (1997) suggested using the Extraversion and Openness scales for agency (i. e. , personal growth) and the Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability scales for communion (i. e. , socialization). In this study, agency and communion were operationalized using both Wiggins’s (1991) specific measure approach and Digman’s (1997) broad measure approach.Following Wiggins’s approach, we selected the CPI scale of Dominance ( . 83) for agency and the CPI scale of Communality ( . 71) for communion. The CPI-Dominance is highly correlated with extraversion (r . 82; Fleenor & Eastman, 1997), and dominance is a key facet of extraversion (DeYoung, Quilty, & Peterson, 2007). The construct definition also supported our choice: Individuals high in dominance are assertive, dominant, and task-oriented; individuals low in dominance are quiet and cautious. The CPI-Communality is highly correlated with agreeableness (r . 0; Fleenor & Eastman, 1997), and agreeableness corresponds to communion (Wiggins, 1991). The construct definition of communality supports our decision: Individuals who are high in communality are likely to be team players who fit in with other people easily, agreeable, cooperative, reasonable, approachable for advice, dependable, and contented; individuals who are low in communality are likely to be nonconformers, changeable, moody, and reckless (Gough & Bradley, 1996; Groth-Marnat, 1990). Following Digman’s (1997) broader approach to agency measurement, we selected the CPI scales of Social Presence ( . 2), 1 This data set was used to examine different research questions in Glomb and Liao (2003), Glomb and Tews (2004), and Glomb and Welsh (2005). 894 KIM AND GLOMB Capacity for Status ( . 72), and Independence ( . 74) in addition to Dominance. These additional three scales have been identified as compound traits of extraversion and openness (Fleenor & Eastman, 1997), and extraversion and openness correspond to agency (Digman, 1997). CPI-Social Presence also corresponds to the dominance facet rather than the sociability facet of extraversion (Hough & Ones, 2001).The construct definition supported our choice: Individuals high in social presence are self-assured in social settings, and individuals low in social presence are reserved; individuals high in capacity for status are likely to be ambitious and to have high desire to succeed, and individuals low in capacity for status dislike competition; individuals high in independence are likely to be self-sufficient, persistent in seeking goals whether others agree, aggressive, and assertive, and individuals low in independence are likely to seek support from others, avoid conflict, be meek, and be mild (Gough & Bradley, 1996).We used similar conceptual and construct evidence for the Communion scale. In addition to CPI-Communality, we selected the CPI scales of Socialization ( . 78) and Responsibility ( . 77) because these two scales have been identified by Hough and Ones (2001) as compound traits of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (see also Fleenor & Eastman, 1997); furthermore, Digman (1997) has suggested that communion corresponds to agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability.The construct definition of these two components also supported our decision: Individuals high in socialization are likely to be conscientious and easy to conform to others, whereas individuals low in socialization are likely to be rebellious and to have unconventional attitudes; individuals high in respons ibility are responsible and ethically perceptive, whereas individuals low in responsibility are likely to be self-indulgent and careless (Gough & Bradley, 1996).In summary, the Agency scale is composed of the CPI scales of Dominance, Social Presence, Capacity for Status, and Independence; the Communion scale is composed of the CPI scales of Communality, Socialization, and Responsibility. 2 Given the typical conceptualization of agency and communion as broad traits, we consider the broad operationalization in our primary analyses and conduct additional analyses for the narrow, one variable conceptualization. The reliability scores of multidimensional Agency and Communion scales were . 87 and . 84, respectively (see Cronbach, 1951; W. M. Rogers, Schmitt, & Mullins, 2002).We conducted confirmatory factor analysis to assess whether the CPI scales load on the higher order common latent constructs of agency and communion using LISREL 8 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1996). The results for the ? Agen cy and Communion scales reveal that a two-factor model— 2 (12) 19. 43; incremental fit index (IFI) . 98; comparative fit index (CFI) . 98; standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) . 06; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) . 07—fits the data quite well and fits significantly better than a one-factor model— 2(13) 49. 96; IFI . 91; CFI . 90; SRMR . 10; RMSEA . 5—providing evidence that subscales load on the higher order measures of agency and communion. In addition, agency and communion correlate . 16 (ns) in our study, which is comparable with correlations reported in previous studies (e. g. , Abele & Wojciszke, 2007 [r –. 03, –. 05]; Bruch, 2002 [r . 05, . 11]; Conway, Pizzamiglio, & Mount, 1996 [r . 27, . 32]). We also assessed the criterion-related validity of the Agency and Communion scales by examining whether they are significantly related to variables shown to be related to agency and communion measures in the broader p ersonality psychology literature.Specifically, we assessed life satisfaction and burnout in our study but did not examine these variables in our substantive hypotheses. Correlations in our data are similar to those in prior literature using alternative operationalizations of communion and agency. Specifically, results show that our Communion scale is significantly related to well-being outcomes, such as life satisfaction (r . 24, p . 01, compared with r . 26 for women and . 28 for men in Saragovi et al. , 1997), and that our Agency scale is significantly related to psychological health outcomes, such as emotional exhaustion (r –. 21, p . 01, compared with r –. 5 in Roos & Cohen, 1987). Control variables. On the basis of previous workplace victimization research (e. g. , Aquino et al. , 1999; Aquino & Thau, 2009; Bowling & Beehr, 2006; Hentig, 1948; Schafer, 1968), we controlled for several variables to reduce the potential impact of unmeasured variables on victimizatio n. Empirical evidence on the relationship between employee demographics and victimization shows mixed findings (Bowling & Beehr, 2006); we control for an employee’s age, gender, and tenure in the organization. There is a compelling theoretical link between organizational hierarchy and victimization (see Aquino et al. 1999); we control for supervisory versus nonsupervisory status. Individual differences, such as positive and negative affectivity, show mixed relationships with victimization (see Bowling & Beehr, 2006); we use the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) to control for positive affectivity ( . 86) and negative affectivity ( . 86). Stress may generate negative affective and behavioral responses that spark victimization (Bowling & Beehr, 2006); we use the Stress Diagnostic Survey (Matteson & Ivancevich, 1982) to control for job, work group, and organizational stress ( . 9 for job, . 89 for work group, and . 87 for organizational s tress). Interpersonal aggression engagement has been proposed as an antecedent of victimization on the basis of social exchange theory (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Bandura, 1973), and Glomb and her colleagues (e. g. , Glomb, 2002; Glomb & Liao, 2003) provided empirical support for the idea of reciprocal aggression. Interpersonal aggression engagement was assessed by the AES-Engaged In scale (Glomb, in press; Glomb & Liao, 2003).The AES-Target (discussed above) and AES-Engaged In scales have the same item content except that one asks about behaviors that you were the target of and the others asks about behavior that you engaged in. We removed three items from the AES-Engaged In scale ( . 80) because of zero variance. Other CPI scales were excluded for one of two reasons: (a) They did not include the core dimensions of Extroversion–Dominance for agency or Agreeableness for communion, or (b) they included these dimensions but were contaminated by others as well.These â€Å"mixed † scales were the most likely reason for exclusion. Specific mappings of CPI scales to Big Five (i. e. , A: agreeableness, C: conscientiousness, ES: emotional stability, EX: extraversion, O: openness) characteristics are as follows: Self-Acceptance (ES EX), Empathy (EX O C), Well-Being (ES EX), Tolerance (O A), Achievement With Conformation (O C), Achievement With Independence (ES EX O C), Psychological-Mindedness (ES O), Flexibility (O C), Sociability (EX-Sociability), Intellectual Efficiency (O), Self-Control (ES C), and Good Impression (C). COGNITIVE ABILITY AND VICTIMIZATION 895 Results Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations are presented in Table 1. Cognitive ability is significantly correlated with victimization (r . 18, p . 05). Agency and communion are not significantly correlated with victimization. Several control variables—including age (r . 21, p . 01); job, workgroup, organizational stress (r . 41, . 24, . 41, respectively, p . 01); and aggressi on engagement (r . 54, p . 01)—are significantly correlated with victimization.The control variables of positive and negative affectivity and hierarchical status suggest nonsignificant associations with victimization. Table 2 presents the regression results using the broad operationalization of agency and communion (see Digman, 1997). Because individuals in the same work group are not independent, the independent assumption of traditional ordinary least squares regression is violated, causing biased estimators. Therefore, we used a clustered regression with a White-correction in STATA that allows covariance between individuals within groups and corrects for heteroscedasticity across groups (see W.H. Rogers, 1993). We report unstandardized regression coefficients and regular R2 because standardized coefficients and adjusted R2 are not valid with the cluster option (see Glomb & Liao, 2003; W. H. Rogers, 1993). We tested the degree of multicollinearity with the variance inflatio n factor; values ranged from 1. 05 to 1. 94, with an average variance inflation factor of 1. 37, suggesting it was not a critical problem. Control variables explain 42% of the variance in victimization (Model 1). Model 2 includes cognitive ability, agency, and communion.Results suggest a significant relationship between cognitive ability and victimization (b 0. 17, p . 01), supporting Hypothesis 1. Agency and victimization were also significantly associated (b 0. 08, p . 05), supporting Hypothesis 2. This association is different from the nonsignificant zero-order correlation, suggesting the association exists after controlling for other variables. Consistent with the zero-order correlations, communion was not significantly associated with victimization; Hypothesis 3 was not supported. These variables explain an additional 4% of the variance in victimization.Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Gender Tenure (years) Age (years) Hierarchical status Negative affectivity Positive affectivity Job stress Workgroup stress Organizational stress Aggression engagement Agency (index) Communion (index) Agency (CPI–Dominance) Communion (CPI–Communality) Cognitive ability Victimization M SD 1 . 15 . 09 . 05 . 00 . 11 . 02 . 12 . 21 . 11 . 01 . 09 . 03 . 09 . 18 . 02 2 3 4 To test the moderating effects of personality traits, we used hierarchical moderated regression with centered interaction terms.Interaction terms explain an additional 4% of the variance in victimization (Model 3). Hypothesis 4, which predicts the moderating role of agency personality traits on the association between cognitive ability and victimization, was supported (b 0. 02, p . 05). Hypothesis 5, which predicts the moderating role of communal personality traits on the association between cognitive ability and victimization, was also supported (b – 0. 05, p . 05). The interactions were plotted using Aiken an d West’s (1991) method and are shown in Figures 1 and 2.Figure 1 illustrates that as cognitive ability increases, for those high in agency, victimization increases compared with those low in agency. Figure 2 illustrates that as cognitive ability increases, for those low in communion, victimization increases, and for those high in communion, victimization decreases. These results suggest that agency traits exacerbate and that communion traits buffer the relationship of cognitive ability to victimization. We tested the same regression model using specific measures of agency and communion, which is consistent with Wiggins’s (1991) operationalization (i. e. CPI-Dominance for agency and CPI-Communality for communion). These results suggest similar empirical findings, which confirm the role of cognitive ability, agency, and communion on victimization at work. Table 3 presents the regression results. In Model 4, results suggest a significant relationship between cognitive abi lity and victimization (b 0. 15, p . 05), supporting Hypothesis 1. Dominance and victimization were significantly associated (b 0. 11, p . 05), supporting Hypothesis 2. Communality was also significantly associated with victimization (b – 0. 18, p . 05), supporting Hypothesis 3.This finding is different than the broad communion index, in which the association was not significant. These variables explain an additional 6% of the variance in victimization. In Model 5, interaction terms explain an additional 2% of the variance in victimization. Hypothesis 4, which predicts the moderating role of agency personality traits on the association between cognitive ability and victimization, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0. 74 0. 44 1. 85 2. 21 23. 77 7. 41 0. 73 0. 45 19. 24 5. 22 37. 61 5. 63 11. 94 3. 81 9. 63 3. 63 14. 94 5. 02 21. 33 5. 06 55. 55 7. 98 55. 21 4. 25 58. 85 10. 3 54. 43 5. 34 25. 41 5. 40 23. 74 6. 41 .28 . 20 . 04 . 12 . 22 . 18 . 39 . 28 . 16 . 03 . 12 . 05 . 18 . 16 .19 . 10 . 06 . 33 . 31 . 28 . 05 . 03 . 06 . 09 . 01 . 08 . 21 .14 . 05 . 37 . 05 . 21 . 09 . 15 . 07 . 09 . 07 . 05 . 14 .19 . 06 . 15 . 02 . 19 . 10 . 23 . 07 . 18 . 05 . 00 .06 . 29 . 13 . 10 . 27 . 25 . 29 . 09 . 12 . 03 .45 . 55 . 25 . 03 . 01 . 01 . 05 . 03 . 41 .43 . 21 . 01 . 15 . 01 . 12 . 12 . 24 .31 . 22 . 04 . 21 . 01 . 07 . 41 .07 . 05 . 07 . 03 . 08 . 54 .16 . 87 . 11 . 13 . 04 .24 . 54 . 14 . 11 . 11 . 10 . 09 .05 . 09 . 18 1, male Note. N 133. Correlations greater than . 7 are significant at p . 05; those greater than . 21 are significant at p 0; Hierarchical status: subordinate 1, supervisor 0; CPI California Psychological Inventory. .01. Gender: female 896 KIM AND GLOMB Table 2 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Victimization Victimization Variable Gender Tenure (years) Age (years) Hierarchical status Negative affectivity Positive affectivity Job stress Workgroup stress Organizational stress Aggression engagement Cognitive ability Agency (index) Commu nion (index) Cognitive Ability Agency Cognitive Ability Communion R2 R2 Model 1 0. 2 . 03 . 09 . 55 . 11 . 03 . 35 . 03 . 24 . 62 Model 2 1. 16 . 01 . 09 . 81 . 12 . 05 . 37 . 10 . 25 . 60 . 17 . 08 . 21 . 46 . 04 Model 3 1. 06 . 02 . 09 1. 09 . 15 . 04 . 43 . 18 . 27 . 60 . 15 . 06 . 26 . 02 . 05 . 50 . 04 .42 Note. N 133. Regression coefficients are unstandardized because standard regression coefficients are invalid with the cluster option (see Glomb & Liao, 2003; W. H. Rogers, 1993). Gender: female 1, male 0; Hierarchical status: subordinate 1, supervisor 0. p . 05. p . 01 (two-tailed test).Figure 2. The moderating role of communion personality traits on the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization. was marginally supported (b 0. 01, p . 10). Hypothesis 5, which predicts the moderating role of communion personality traits on the association between cognitive ability and victimization, was supported (b – 0. 03, p . 05). Discussion The primary purpose of this study was to examine the role of cognitive ability in workplace victimization, a topic that has received scant research attention.Cognitive ability predicts many job and real-life outcomes (see Brand, 1987), and thus, it is important to include in the portfolio of variables associated with victimization, such as personality, demographics, behaviors, and organizational characteristics (see Aquino & Thau, 2009; Bowling & Beehr, 2006). Consistent with a victim precipitation model, our results suggest that cognitive ability is associated with workplace victimization. We also tested the relationship between agency and communion—two interpersonally oriented personality dimensions—and victimization.Consistent with a negative reciprocity cycle and a provocative victim typology, our results suggest that individuals high in agency personality traits experience victimization at work. Counter to expectations, we did not find a significant relationship between communion and lower victimization in our primary analyses. This nonsignificant finding may be explained by the positive–negative asymmetry effect (see Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Fickenauer, & Vohs, 2001; Taylor, 1991), which would suggest that positive interpersonal interactions carry less weight than negative social interactions, and therefore, it may cause a nonsignificant finding.The nonsignificant findings may also be caused by the broad communion measure, the components of which might evidence differential relationships with victimization. A previous study found that victimization is significantly associated with agreeableness ( – . 21, p . 05) but is not significantly associated with conscientiousness and emotional stability ( – . 02 and . 10, respectively; Figure 1. The moderating role of agency personality traits on the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization. COGNITIVE ABILITY AND VICTIMIZATION 897Table 3 Supplemental Analysis Results of Hierarchical Regress ion Analysis for Victimization Victimization Variable Gender Tenure (years) Age (years) Hierarchical status Negative affectivity Positive affectivity Job stress Workgroup stress Organizational stress Aggression engagement Cognitive ability Agency (CPI Dominance) Communion (CPI Communality) Cognitive Ability Agency Cognitive Ability Communion R2 R2 Model 4 1. 33 . 01 . 11 . 46 . 11 . 00 . 34 . 14 . 28 . 61 . 15 . 11 . 18 . 48 . 06 Model 5 1. 24 . 02 . 08 . 36 . 14 . 00 . 35 . 18 . 30 . 61 . 12 . 10 . 18 . 1†  . 03 . 50 . 02†  outcomes, rather than the more distal individual difference of cognitive ability, that are mediating explanatory variables. Future work might explore whether high performance, ability, and achievement in other domains adhere to similar processes (cf. Feather, 1994, on tall poppies). Theoretical Implications This study contributes to the cognitive ability, personality, and workplace victimization literatures in a variety of ways. First, we extend the sc ope of the victim precipitation model by proposing and testing the possibility of smart victims.Second, contrary to the existing cognitive ability literature, our finding indicates a potential downside to high cognitive ability (e. g. , for another possible exception, such as clever concealer effects, see Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985). This study moves cognitive ability research in a new direction by positing and testing a potential downside to high cognitive ability in the workplace. Third, in our study we examined two broad interpersonally oriented personality dimensions— agency and communion—and their association with workplace victimization.Although personality researchers have confirmed that the agency and communion model is useful in terms of investigating interpersonally oriented outcomes (see Abele & Wojciszke, 2007; Bruch, 2002; Digman, 1997; Helgeson, 1994; Wiggins, 1991), this model is currently less popular than the Big Five model in organizational scholarship , perhaps because of the absence of an agreed upon operationalization of these multidimensional traits (see Helgeson, 1994; Saragovi et al. , 1997).Although the Big Five is certainly a useful taxonomy, because we are interested in workplace victimization and the interpersonal relationships between victims and perpetrators, the agency and communion framework may be useful for future victimization research. Fourth, the interplay of two key individual differences— cognitive ability and personality traits— on victimization provides an integration of two complementary theories, which adhere to the social and personality psychological models of social interactions. Although previous workplace victimization literature integrated the victim precipitation model with structural theory (e. g. Aquino, 2000; Aquino et al. , 1999), and reciprocity theory with structural theory (e. g. , Aquino & Bommer, 2003), the integration of the victim precipitation model and reciprocity theory h as not received research attention. In this study, we take the first step by integrating victim precipitation with reciprocity theory to demonstrate the interactive effects of cognitive ability and agency– communion personality traits on workplace victimization. This approach is consistent with social psychological literature suggesting the multiplicative effect of competence and likeability on social interactions (see Casciaro & Lobo, 2008; Fiske et al. 2006). Note. N 133. Regression coefficients are unstandardized because standard regression coefficients are invalid with the cluster option (see Glomb & Liao, 2003; W. H. Rogers, 1993). Gender: female 1, male 0; Hierarchical status: subordinate 1, supervisor 0; CPI California Psychological Inventory. †  p . 10. p . 05. p . 01 (two-tailed test). Jensen-Campbell et al. , 2002), which are captured in our index. These results are consistent with our supplemental analysis; when we adopted the specific scale of Communion (i. e . CPICommunality for agreeableness; see Wiggins, 1991), we found a significant relationship between communion and victimization (b – 0. 18, . 15, p . 05). More studies are necessary to have greater confidence in the relationship between communion personality traits and victimization at work. Finally, our results demonstrate the moderating effects of agency and communion on the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization. Results suggest that the relationship between cognitive ability and victimization is exacerbated by agency personality traits, which is manifested in self-oriented behaviors (i. . , independence, dominance, capacity for status, and social presence) in a work group. Conversely, results suggest that the increased propensity to be victimized because of one’s high cognitive ability can be mitigated by communion personality traits, which is manifested in other-oriented or â€Å"team player† behavior (i. e. , communality, responsibility, and socialization) in a work group. We acknowledge that we do not study possible mediating mechanisms and that cognitive ability may be operating as a proxy for other variables relevant to workplace success.For example, it may be that high-performing individuals, rather than high-cognitiveability individuals, are those who are most likely to be the targets of interpersonal aggression. Similar theoretical processes of social comparison would also apply to high performance, but in this case, cognitive ability operates as a proxy for performance. As noted, cognitive ability is related to myriad positive outcomes on the job, and we acknowledge that it may be those proximal favorable job Organizational ImplicationsIn the 1950 movie Harvey, Jimmy Stewart’s character Elwood Dowd says, â€Å"Years ago my mother used to say to me . . . She’d say ‘In this world Elwood, you must be oh-so smart or oh-so pleasant. ’ Well, for years I was smart . . . I recommend pleasa nt. † On the basis of our findings, we recommend that if you are going to be â€Å"oh-so smart† then you should also be â€Å"oh-so pleasant† to avoid workplace victimization. Beyond individual advice, the results also have important practical implications for managers. First, 898 KIM AND GLOMB managers need to be aware of this potential dark side of high cognitive ability at work.Managers are familiar with the positive side of high cognitive ability, but initial evidence of smart victims suggests managers may need to be on the lookout for and take precautions to deter the workplace victimization of smart employees. The strong and consistent relationship between cognitive ability and many elements of performance suggests that these individuals may be among the most important to keep satisfied, productive, and retained. Tactics helpful in preventing the victimization of high-cognitive-ability employees may reduce both the proximal and distal costs of workplace vic timization.Second, our results suggest that high cognitive ability does not predestine employees to be victimized—their personality also plays a role. Although managers attend to personality during the selection process because it predicts job performance (see Dunn, Mount, Barrick, & Ones, 1995), our results suggest that personality can also have either a protective (i. e. , communion) or intensifying (i. e. , agency) role in victimization. We do not suggest that organizations should not select applicants who are high in agency traits because they are more vulnerable to victimization at work.Personality traits have their own bright and dark sides (see Judge & LePine, 2007). For example, although our results show that employees who are high in agency traits are more likely to be victims at work, research also shows that traits under the agency umbrella are associated with being a leader (e. g. , extraversion; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002). Further, although high-abilit y employees who are also high in communion are less likely to be victims at work, research also suggests that traits under the communion umbrella are associated with the use of more lenient standards to evaluate coworker performance (e. . , agreeableness; Bernardin, Cooke, & Villanova, 2000). Thus, organizations need to consider both the benefits and costs of the communion and agency personality traits of employees and to be aware of their correlates, both favorable and unfavorable. Regardless of the composition of agency and communion in the workforce, organizations can attempt to modify individual behaviors by creating strong situations (e. g. , human resource practices, organization culture) that minimize the link between personality and behaviors and that enhance positive reciprocity norms between employees.Limitations and Future Directions This study is not without limitation. First, range restriction in cognitive ability may cause reduced sample correlations. However, given th at range restriction reduces the strength of relationships because of limited variance (Sackett & Yang, 2000), this seems to be a minor issue. Further, the degree of variability of cognitive ability is similar to that in other studies (e. g. , Chan, 1997; Mumford, Van Iddekinge, Morgeson, & Campion, 2008; Sackett & Ostgaard, 1994). Second, the external validity of these findings is limited.This data set is small and is from a predominantly Caucasian sample of health care workers. The sample is also predominantly female, which may have influenced effects; women high in cognitive ability and agency may be particularly prone to victimization because of gender stereotypes (see Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972). The context of a health care home is interesting because employees may be more empathetic and less competitive given self-selection into this caring profession.They are also more likely to be exposed to victimization; the health care industry continually reports some of the highest levels of workplace aggression and victimization (see Rippon, 2000), though victimization is often perpetrated by patients, and in our study we examined victimization from coworkers and supervisors. Examining our relationships in other business contexts and groups is necessary. Third, the construct validity of our agency and communion measures may be questioned.Given that there is not a generally accepted method of transforming the CPI scales into the broad indices of agency and communion, we created our own measures guided by previous literature and linkages of the content of the scales (e. g. , Digman, 1997; Gough & Bradley, 1996; Hough & Ones, 2001). In the field of personality psychology, there have been calls for the development and study of agency and communion scales (see Helgeson, 1994); we concur and believe the development of valid and concise measures of agency and communion traits might promulgate the use of these interpersonally oriented per sonality constructs.Fourth, measures were self-report from a single source, and thus, common method bias is a potential problem. However, cognitive ability and personality traits were measured for personnel selection, and perceived victimization was measured 22 months later, on average (i. e. , average tenure is 22 months). Because there are large temporal and psychological distances between cognitive ability and perceived victimization measures, the impact of common method bias is not a major concern (see Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003).We also controlled for positive affectivity and negative affectivity, which also impact the cognitive perception and reporting processes (Bowling & Beehr, 2006; Isen, 1987; Podsakoff & Organ, 1986; Schmitt, 1994; Spector, 1994; Watson & Clark, 1984). As Schmitt (1994) suggested, the appropriateness of methods should be based on the stage of development of the research; given the lack of research in this area, self-report data would be deemed acceptable. Further, as noted by others (e. . , Aquino & Lamertz, 2004; Spector, 1994), it is difficult to envision circumstances in which non-self-report data w

Information Use Essay

In today’s business environment information is the most important asset a business has, this information helps to support, maintain, develop and track its daily activities. The next logical step is implementing a system that is conducive and geared towards this goal. With the help of its information system, and its information technology department, managers, sales people, the operations department and others with access to this information have a handy tool to help them do their work on a daily basis. The structure of the information system is paramount on how accessible this information is to the people that depend upon it to complete their normal workday. The managers and IT department work closely together to agree upon and decide on an information system that will be feasible to the business itself, thus setting up a system that will be beneficial to the business itself. In my previous workplace, this was a real estate company that focused on short sales and loan modifications. Our information was provided by the homeowner, this information consisted of their mortgage statement, bank records, hardship letters describing why they needed the short sales or the loan modification, and a list of their debt-income ratio and any foreclosure information. The database we worked on was a system called Salesforce; this system enabled us to keep track of the calls we had to make and document all details of that call. It contained all of the information we needed to accomplish this task, it held clients pertinent data, the banks that we dealt with and a method to track the goals we had to accomplish each week. This system was also an ERM (electronic records management database) we had the ability to scan and upload pertinent client information such as three months of bank statements, paystubs, and hardship letters, foreclosure notices and current mortgage statements. It was very user friendly and had the ability to be modified towards the needs of the company using it. That being said management asked us to make suggestions on what additions we saw or felt that would help make our jobs easy and more efficient. The short sale team made several suggestions to add to Salesforce, thereby making it more specified for our daily tasks. The short sale team was not the only ones using Salesforce, our sales team that generated the leads or clients were the first line of defense; they had to enter the client’s information into Salesforce and scan all the documents related to a homeowner’s situation. The sales team was also responsible for contacting the homeowners to send updated and current documents pertinent to their short sales or loan modifications. In essence Salesforce was also used as a data management system, it had the ability to store all data, generate sales reports, processing, integrating, distributing, securing, and archiving data effectively for current and future use. Accessing Salesforce was readily available if we were out of the office as well, we had the capability to log in and view reports, or if a new client was added, and if we needed information to set up an appraisal that was requested by the bank before the short sale was approved. This ability was very handy for the real estate agent and the processor handling the account, the ability to access the main database with all pertinent information about the client away from the office was an excellent tool that Salesforce offered. Maintenance of Salesforce was managed by our small IT staff, any problems with the system was corrected or fixed very quickly, as the licenses held by Salesforce enabled the IT staff to manage the database as an in-house system, therefore they did not have to contact anyone with any issues. At the same time the permissions on Salesforce were very strict, a person’s user id and password only allowed access to certain parts, the short sales team could not modify or change anything, especially any client information or access the sales departments input and vice versa. This made sense, because there was very important information on the database, the client’s financial data and mortgage information, very sensitive information. In essence, the database that the company used in my opinion was user friendly and seemed to address the needs of the business, in this case a real estate office that held important and sensitive financial data, credit reports and mortgage information. The system enabled us to handle the flow of information and daily activities easy, made access to running reports quickly and efficiently. Further, management was able to view and track completion of daily tasks and weekly goals to generate reports quickly.

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Progress Report - Implementation and Assessment - Essay Example s, Team Beta identified the control issues from the various discussions at the initial stages, setting out a firm grounding for a collaborative network of dealing with the varied ideas, feelings, opinions, and more importantly, reacting to the responsibilities bestowed upon each member. Paying close attention to Gilley and Gilley (2007) advices, Team Beta took a productive approach to the team members’ differences, fashioning members’ efforts to specific goals set forth by all in a participative process. Now in the third and final phase of the project, the team has acquired a wealth of knowledge and is well on course towards meeting the project’s instructions. Toni, Edgar, Frederick and I have all worked tirelessly, crushing initial targets to render amazing results that have left a smile in every member’s face. With a team spirit already nurtured, we call each other for inquiries, schedule meetings with ease, and/or offer assistance whenever necessary in order to beat the strict deadlines of the project. Having lost one of our members in the initial stages of the project, the reduced number of the group members compared to the other teams was, observably, a straining challenge in terms of additional work load. As the Team’s coordinator, I implemented a benchmarking process, which, though took quite a while to be adopted fully, has generated tremendous progress; a classic case of how a structured coordination is important in delivering group objectives. Team Beta is, however, aware of its shortcomings with regards to effective use of technology, and has since commissioned every member to gather and present to the group any information that might elevate our overall efficiency in this final phase. Indeed as it is, we will not spare even a single minute to reach out to Dr. Holm, a tutor dedicated to service in developing young careers; for what else can one ask for in a lecturer? I look forward to having even greater engagement in shaping a future that I

Women status in islam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Women status in islam - Essay Example But this status is not enough for the modern world. Before the advent of Islam, women were treated in a derogatory manner. They were considered mainly as possessions that could be transferred from father to son as inheritance. There was also a prevalent custom where women were burned alive as infants since every family wanted a man rather than a woman. With the emergence of Islam, women got an improved status within the society and thus practices were severely looked down upon. Women were no longer considered as possessions but rather as partners in a marriage. Islam ensured the women were treated with due respect and kindness. In this regard, Prophet (PBUH) is reported to have said: The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) on various occasions highlighted on the status of women. He preached that Muslim men should treat their women with respect and kindness. His attitude towards his wife is a testimony of his preaching. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) married various time for different reasons and in every case, he treated his wives very kindly. None of his wives ever used a negative comment regarding the Prophet (PBUH) and always referred to him the most praiseworthy manner. Before embarking on the argument of equality between men and women, it should be understood that equality does not mean that these genders should be considered same. They lie of different ends of the spectrum and thus both these genders have their own status. Islam has not made men superior over women; it just provides a clear distinction of the role of the men and women. While men are the breadwinners of the household, women are required to look after the household. The equality between men and women can be judged from a quote that Holy Prophet (PBUH) is reported to have said: ‘All people are equal, as the teeth of a comb. There is no claim of merit of an Arab and non-Arab, or a white over a black person or a male over a

The Causes, Risk Factors Occurrence of Rheumatoid Arthritis in United Research Paper

The Causes, Risk Factors Occurrence of Rheumatoid Arthritis in United States - Research Paper Example   Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic inflammatory disease. It is generally seen that the joints become swollen and there is severe pain that is experienced by the patients. Researchers have found that RA causes the immune system of a person to attack their joints. In RA, the autoimmune response can lead to permanent, painful changes in the joints. This disease is an autoimmune defect and it causes healthy cells to be attacked, releasing enzymes that attack surrounding tissues. One of these structures is the synovium in the joint. It becomes inflamed and causes swelling and pain. Researches have found that RA affects women three times more often than men. Typically, it affects the small joints first, including the joints of the hands and feet. More than one joint usually is affected, and symptoms often appear bilaterally.   Arthritis is a serious problem that is faced by many around the world and it is estimated that about 50 million adults in the United States have r eported the doctors to have some form of arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, lupus, or fibromyalgia. Another estimation suggests that the problem of arthritis is so chronic that one in every five adults in the US report having doctor-diagnosed arthritis. There are also projections that suggest that by the year 2030, 67 million Americans will have doctor-diagnosed arthritis at the age of 18 or older and those that are below the age of 18 an estimated 294,000 children will have some form of arthritis or rheumatic condition. In other words, approximately 1 in every 250 children will suffer from this chronic disease all through there life. This points out that arthritis is not just the disease of the elderly, but it is a serious problem among children also. The figures in Florida according to this survey say that 3,903,200 children below the age group of 18 years are having arthritis (Sacks et al. 2007). In a recent survey, it was estimated that about 1.5 million adults had rheumatoi d arthritis in 2007 (CDC, 2010). According to another estimate in Florida, 27% of adults belonging to the age of 18 years and above have arthritis, and the percentage amplifies with age. Additionally, among this population of self-reported doctor-diagnosed arthritis and estimated 46% of them are not able to do any activity due to their arthritis, 17% of them reported that they are not able have good social participation, 28% suffer from severe joint pain, the working population (34%) have various other limitations due to their arthritis (CDC, 2011). Even though the exact causes are indefinite, RA is thought to be the result problems in once own immune system. In other words, the self-defense system of the human body attacks the healthy cells in the body and these results in RA and other autoimmune diseases. Researchers suggest that there is no age restriction for the initiation of RA and is linked with weariness and extended stiffness after rest.  Ã‚  

With reference to the text explain Gilroy's approach to the concepts Essay

With reference to the text explain Gilroy's approach to the concepts of 'race','class' and 'nation' - Essay Example The main source of the problem seems to be the static, non-historical perception of race, class, and nation. As such, some sort of objectivity and timelessness is ascribed to these terms, such that such fossilization results in the freezing of the very problem of racism. To be blind to this root results in not hitting the spot; no matter how hard one tries to be anti-racist, the only result is to ironically preserve racism. To speak of the Black race, Black class, and /or the Black nation aggravates the situation of the Blacks in the UK. Intuitively, we can already sense how this happens: to speak of these terms and to apply them to the Blacks is to set them apart, in a timeless and hence unchanging manner, distinct from the Whites. With this being said, let us now go to what each term refers to. The term class is not a â€Å"long term† category (Gilroy 1987, 35). As we have already stated above, this term should not be ahistorical, static. It cannot be as ahistorical as Karl Marx’s proletariat and bourgeoisie such that the two seem to be eternally divided, and hence, perennially in some clash. Marxists seem to be comfortable assuming such a distinction such they may simplify social dilemmas as that between capital and labor, proletariat and bourgeoisie, without giving room for fuzzying such a divide between the working class and the bourgeoisie. Though the existence of conflict is undeniable, still, Gilroy rightly points out that some of Marx’s seemingly timeless elements are not as timeless, i.e., through time, there are things in the Das Kapital that is already outmoded, and hence, needs to be modernized. For one, it is obvious that such a dialectical and hard distinction between the working class and the bourgeoisie is challenged by the fact that mem bers of the present-day bourgeoisie may even act as the grassroots intellectuals of the working class. Many times, Black teachers, newspaper

10 short answer question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

10 short answer question - Assignment Example It is normally measured through human Development Index, Index of economic well being (IEWB) etc. The economic growth and economic development of Newfoundland is recorded to be almost 3% per year which is the highest during 1981 and 2010, whereas British Columbia had the lowest with 0.5 % per year during the same period. the five major resources of energy available currently in industrialized countries are Coal, natural gas, oil, gathering under fossil fuels which are non-renewable ,Nuclear and hydroelectric which are renewable and other renewable sources like solar, wind, geo-thermal, tidal and waves energy. Safe and sustainable energy is crucial for the sustainability of world economy. Today, an average person in an industrial market economy consumes approximately 80 times more than as much energy as someone in sub-Saharan Africa and about quarter of a world consumes three quarters of primary global energy which has led to uneven distribution of energy consumption. Low energy path is the best way towards a sustainable future. As per the current development rate the countries with in next 50 years could produce same levels of energy services with as little as half the primary supply currently consumed. However, this would require crucial decision making in socio-economic structure and institutional arrangements. 3. Describe the issue(s) associated with the salmon fishery (renewable resource) on the west coast of British Columbia. Describe the mitigation/management actions that are being applied currently? Have the mitigation management changes been successful? Issues associated with salmon fishery include potential ecological interactions as well as disease concerns owing to climate change. Local over fishing along with climate change and fresh water habitat loss has severely hampered the marine fish species including

Curriculum for the gifted Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Curriculum for the gifted - Essay Example A major shift in the curriculum design for the gifted was introduced by Van Tassel-Baska and Little when they suggested that the curriculum design should be a performance-based model which gives emphasis on the level of functioning of the individual to determine whether he is ready to go up the next level (Chapter 1 - Curriculum for the gifted: Past, present and future directions). This new development changed the view that the curriculum should have an optimal match with the characteristic of the gifted learner. With this new approach therefore, the curriculum design becomes more responsive to the needs of the gifted learner. There are several issues in developing a curriculum for gifted learners. A major issue which confronts a teacher in developing a curriculum for the gifted is that not all gifted learners are alike with regards to their characteristics and needs (Chapter 2 - Curriculum design issues in developing a curriculum for the gifted). The background of the student, like income level, must be taken into consideration so that the curriculum can be adapted accordingly. Another issue that faces the curriculum developer is the choice of content and the process design (Chapter 2 - Curriculum design issues in developing a curriculum for the gifted). A decision has to be made on whether the topic will be of interest to the gifted. The content should be meaningful and challenging enough so that the students will be interested to explore it. The teacher who will be discussing the topic must be appropriately knowledgeable of the topic, else the gifted student might lose interest in it. The strategy to be used in teaching the content is another issue that must be tackled by the instructor of gifted individuals. A single strategy may not work for all learners. The issue is determining what combination of strategies must be applied so that the gifted learners get the maximum benefit from the curriculum (Chapter 2 -

Writing Assignment #2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writing Assignment #2 - Essay Example The debate over possible government breakups of Internet companies began with a recently published book that also chronicles how monopolies in the information industry are almost always caused by government meddling. The book is "The Master Switch" by Tim Wu, a Columbia law professor who coined the term "network neutrality." Setting aside for a moment Mr. Wus call for more aggressive regulation of the Web, he is right that over the past century what he calls "information empires" have hijacked what start out as open systems, almost always with government regulation at fault. "Every few decades," Mr. Wu writes, "a new communications technology appears, bright with promise and possibility." There is innovation but also chaos, as new business models disrupt old ones. The result often is that "the markets invisible hand waves in some great mogul" who promises a more orderly structure for the industry. "Usually enlisting the federal government, this kind of mogul is special for he defines a new type of industry, integrated and centralized." Consider these examples: Telephone. In 1913, the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. asked the federal government to regulate it, in the hopes of creating a monopoly on long-distance service that would let it over time crush local independent providers. With the slogan of "One system, one policy, universal service," AT&T got government-set rates that ensured it strong rates of return for decades while limiting competitors. As Mr. Wu says, "Imagine Microsoft in the 1990s asking the states and the Clinton Justice Department to determine the price of installing Windows or Google today requesting federal guidelines for its search engine." AT&T wasnt broken up until 1984. Radio. In the 1920s, radio was an open medium of unrestricted, competitive communications. Church groups, universities and hobbyists launched radio stations catering to hundreds of different communities of interest. But by the late 1920s,

Appraising (Human Resource management) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Appraising (Human Resource management) - Essay Example ld base the annual performance appraisal on both the performance shown by the employee till this point since the start of the year, and that shown by the employee from this point in the year onward till its end. In other words, the performance shown by the employee for the previous objectives whose duration is from the start till the middle of the year does not go waste. However, since it is a little complicated for the employee to abruptly exercise a radical change in his/her work responsibilities, it is imperative that the meetings between the manager and the employee from this point onwards till the end of the year are made more frequent. This means that if previously, two meetings were arranged, then after the change, there should be four meetings from the middle to the end of the year. This would provide the manager with an opportunity to monitor more closely whether the employee is working to achieve the new assigned goals or

History of Brazil Essay Example for Free

History of Brazil Essay Brazil the only Portuguese speaking country of South America, was founded by Spanish and Portuguese in the same year of 1500, but was handed over to the Portugal in the agreement of Torsdesillas (Bamber Gascoigne,gtu). Since the time of its colonization from 1500 until the late 1930, export of principal products has been subjected. Joao VI the sole sovereign when returned to Portugal, his apparent to the throne was Pedro, who surged a sequence of progressive political differences, which ultimately led to the independence of Brazil by 1822, leading to an era of kingship by Dom Pedro. His son Pedro II continued his legacy and led a more efficient government more than his father till 1889, where he was deposed by military coup. After that there were two more military coups in 1930 and later in 1964, but since 1985, democracy slowly returned to the snagged state. But in the midst of all the political and military drama, somehow the country’s economy was on the move. The history of the country indicates of its troubled pasts, and its love affairs with military coups, but since the last three decades, the country’s political frame has been stable, leading to ample opportunity for company like ours. Brazil Demography and Economy Brazil today has a population of more than 183 million people, with a high literacy rate of more than 86% (BIGS, Brazil today). A very strong positive indication, of a healthy literate population, briefly a very lucrative consumer mass for our product. Brazil comes in one of the front leaders of a leading economy in the world. It is an elite member of trillion dollar GDP group of the world. It is one of the fastest growing economies of the world, and slowly but surely, this country has become members of varied monetary unions, like Mercosur, and G-20. Brazil’s GDP has grown at an alarming 5. 1 % in the financial year of 2007, and with a very strong GDP per capita income of $8800 and also the Brazilian currency BRL$ is very strong, as 1 USD is near about less than BRL$ 2. This 8th largest economy of the world would prove to provide substantial buyers of our product in due course of time. Brazil’s Lifestyle Brazilian culture is a very open culture, with very less of taboos, and from the early times has been into music, and dance. Being a highly diversified culture with a huge mix of ethnic groups, Brazil has a very rich heritage. Music is one of the lifelines of Brazilians, and it can be stated form the fact that, way before their independence, Brazil had its own set of music schools, set up in different part of the country . This 5th largest population of the world is very inclined to towards singing and dancing customs, and being a prosperous nation 98% of the large population has access to television, where their local movie industry which also being the 10th largest in the world is highly well-liked and watched. Brazil’s inclination towards sports is not hidden from the world, and especially their superior liking for football. The population in general is known to be very hard working, but very apposite to recreation in sports and music. Status of demands of subwoofer in cars Brazil has a very large automobile industry, and in the year 2005, Brazil manufactured more than 1.65 million cars only for its domestic market (Elisangela Cordeiro), also according to the Euro monitor consumer electronics reporting Brazil, the in-car electronics such as woofers and media players along with other electronics in the market are available at cheap installment schemes, which are luring the common man into packing his car with accessories, like car speakers and woofers. Brazil has got a very huge young population, which would be our main targets for our products, as woofers are a very mandatory thing for the young generation of Brazilians. Recommendation Our first strategy to enter Brazilian woofer market is to tie up with the local car manufacturers, and to fit in our woofers in the local brands at reasonable prices. Since Brazil has a huge automobile market, we can tap into its boom and accessories the cars with our woofers. Secondly, the basic nature of a Brazilian is very open, and everyone has very strong interest in the different genres of music, we can capitalize on this nature of theirs and we can have ads on the lines of their open nature along with, their music, being played by our subwoofer. The only competition from a brand as repute as ours is from the company â€Å"BOSE†, but it only has its sales distributors, retail and commercial in Sao Paulo, if we can pull up our regional centre in Sao Paulo as well as the capital Brasilia , then we would be miles ahead of BOSE in the Brazilian sphere, as we would be able to reach a lot of people with our products, also these two cities are the main hotspot places for tourists, mainly coming from other regions of Latin America, and we would start catering to the domestic as well as the other Latin American mass would enhance the company’s reputation in nationally as well as in other neighboring countries. We can have our shops in malls and in different youth oriented streets and places, apart from having our outlets at car showrooms. Another thing that is strongly recommended is to tap into local manufacturing structure as Brazil has a very high amount of labor population who work at remunerations which are much aff ordable to us than the labor unit in the US, also the transportation costs would exceed cost price of our product. It is more suitable to link up with government in Brazil for facilitating us with the required formalities, and also the required waivers being handed out to us, in return for the unit which would commence in Brazil, in turn handing out jobs to the local population. Once we establish our market in the region, we can market our product more to the masses by making changes in its core design and, we can create an innovative JBL series subwoofer, which can be in a shape of a football (sphere), which would woo youngsters and football lovers. Further details regarding this matter will be mailed to you from the Research Development wing. Conclusion Brazil has a very booming economy, and it is being rated with countries like India and China who are, the fastest growing economies of the world. This country has a very reasonable labor population which would cut down our costs by a huge margin, when we start manufacturing here. The regional centers which I have recommended would enhance our market in the country, and we if we can tap into the free nature and love of music of the Brazilians , then we would have not only a huge market in this country but also other Latin American countries who would follow Brazil’s in pursuit. Apart from Brazil’s distressed past of military coups, there is nothing else that negates Brazil as one of the prime future market for our company Work Cited Bamber Gascoigne, â€Å"History of Brazil†, Jan 14th 2008 http://www. historyworld. net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories. asp? historyid=aa88

The Pillars Of The Tourism Strategy Tourism Essay

The Pillars Of The Tourism Strategy Tourism Essay Definition of the World Tourist Organisation (WTO): Tourists are those who are travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited In  other words: A tourist are those who goes to different place for private interest or who is sent there, but is not employed at this place. Business tourists may go to this place for meetings or further education. Private tourists may go there for adventure, recreation, pilgrimage or many other purposes. Eco-tourism stressed on local cultures, wilderness adventures, personal development and learning new methods to live. It is defined as travel to different areas where the flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the major attractions. Responsible ecotourism includes practices that lessens the negative impacts of regional tourism on the natural environment, and flourishes the cultural integrity of local communities. Hence, in addition to evaluating environmental, social and cultural factors, initiatives by hospitality providers to positioning recycling, energy efficiency and the creation of economic opportunities for local people are an integral part of ecotourism. Historical, biological and cultural conservation, sustainable development etc. are some of the sectors closely linked to Eco-Tourism. Large number of professionals have been involved in formulating and growing eco-tourism programs. They come from the fields of Geographic data Systems, Wildlife authorities, Wildlife Photography, and Oceanography, National and State Park authorities, Environmental Sciences, Women in Development, and Archaeologists, etc. Ecotourism is widely considered as a nature-based type of alternative visitors that embodies the virtuous traits that tourism supposedly lacks. Therefore, the notion of mass ecotourism is often seen as a contradiction in means or oxymoron. This article, however, argues that ecotourism as both reality, an ideal can logically be perceived as a form of mass tourism, and not its opposite. The first sector provides a working definition of ecotourism, and the remainder of the paper then raise the rationale for the above contention, and considers its applications for the tourism industry and for ecotourism destinations. Meaningful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and natural facts of the environment, taking care not to change the integrity of the ecosystem, during the production of economic opportunities that make the preservation of natural resources profitable to local communities. Hence, ecotourism is a form of tourism to relatively undisturbed natural locations for the main reasons of admiring them and knowing more facts about their lives. Ecotourism also tries to decrease its effects on the locations visited. It also supports to the preservation of natural venues and the sustainable development of adjacent locations and communities, spreading further awareness among habitants and nearby populations and tourist. Although a relatively new part of the tourism sector, ecotourism has diffused vastly all over the world. The most popular ecotourism destinations are spread relatively evenly all over the world and involve sites in Central and South America and the USA and Australia. Another vital ecotourism area is Africa. For example, Kenya employs approximately 55,000 people in its wildlife tourism sector. The Kenya Wildlife Service recorded $24 million of profits from wildlife tourism in 1990. For 1995, it was about $54 million with 25% of earnings paid to people in destinations adjacent to parks and reserves. A latest study of Amboseli National Park in Kenya states that each lion there was worth $27,000 and each elephant herd as much as $610,000 in tourist profits per year. Cultural tourism tends to stress on the indigenous of an area and their customs, arts, crafts, architecture, religion and lifestyles or on visits to art galleries and temples Historical tourism mainly stress on the glories of the past in the form of monuments, museums, and historical sites There are number of different profits that can be derived from Ecotourism if local people use it as a tool rather than number of outside visitors.   However, the results are a direct image of the encouragement behind the program.   Since these motivations are mostly mixed it follows that the results are often mixed too. Sometimes called nature tourism or ecotourism and educational travel based on natural attractions is a promising way of flourishing social, economic, political and environmental objectives in developing countries. It offers countries new ideas for small-enterprise investment and employment and developing the national stake in conserving their biological resources. However, making ecotourism a strong positive economic and environmental tool needs activities that foster responsible nature tourism growth, broad-based and active local participation in its profits, and conservation of developing countries biological heritage. MAIN BODY The ecotourism circumstances are currently entering a significant phase of its development in Kenya. In the past five years, ecotourism has attracted important attention from consumers, conservationists, economic development specialists and others. However, they are entering a period during, which ecotourism will undergo more careful scrutiny to determine whether it provides as many benefits as its proponents suggest it should. For this to be done information has to be made available on nature, performance and characteristics of ventures operating under the ecotourism label. Ecotourism Society of Kenya is at this time working on a project to develop a national record of all existing ecotourism projects in the Kenya, with a view to establishing the extent to which ecotourism has contributed to improved livelihoods for local people and aided conservation. The first phase of this project involved reviewing existing literature on ecotourism enterprises in Kenya, both for existing and pot ential ventures. The second phase will involve a questionnaire survey of the listed projects and others that may be discovered during such visits. This is going help to, among other things, to verify facts, get people views, and fill- in gaps of information missing from writ ten. Kenya  is best known for its wide savannas teeming with lions and elephants, but most travellers dont know that its also home to mountains, lakes, rain forests, deserts and beaches, each with its own unique ecosystem and wildlife. Kenyas incredible natural diversity is protected in some 50 national parks and reserves across the country, from the virgin rain forests of the Kaka mega Forest Reserve to the wildebeests who migrate to the Maasai Mara National Reserve every July and August. On the coast, travellers can walk down pristine white beaches or go diving along colourful coral reefs. All tourism occurs under the watchful eye of Ecotourism Kenya, which works to protect the local environment through community outreach and education projects. The organization also rates lodges throughout Kenya based on their environmental policies. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18215130/ns/travel-active_travel/ Three Pillars of the Tourism Strategy In this term pillar means goals in combination with opportunities and strength. Therefore it is a plan with greater development than the term objectives which is conventionally used in the context of project formulation to detail the achievable aims of a project. For instance, one of the goals of this tourism strategy is to make stakeholders of the western region of Kenya to re-discover and advertise their wealth of natural and cultural heritage as things that bewilder other humans, and that cannot be missed by adventurous visitors and travellers coming to Kenya. Diversification in the context means strategic improvement of product development in order to gain a more competitive stance of tourism in the western region in regards to quality products and tourism amenities as compared to the competition in other regions. Given the above definition of terms, this strategy rests on three strategic pillars of tourism development for the western region of Kenya, namely: a. Product development and diversification b. Integrated promotion, marketing and institutional development from below c. Local tourism education and marketing as a tool of poverty eradication (a) Product Development and Diversification The abundance of unexploited tourism resources including nature, culture and infrastructure means there are many opportunities and options to improve the quality of old products and services or to develop new products. The highest priority, however, should be given to options for improvement of Mt. Elgon National Park and assistance for the community based ecotourism ventures. For example specific options for the improvement of Mt. Elgon National Park are given in a set of recommendations in Table1. They include opening of a second gate at Kaberwa, road improvement for specified park roads to all weather condition. Another priority product development option exists in the form of community based ecotourism ventures. (b) Integrated Tourism Promotion, Marketing and Institutional Development The following facts derived from interviews with top officials of tourism stakeholder organizations at national level illuminated a changing scenario and a new pattern of players for the key roles is emerging as can be seen from the following observations: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE will totally devolve marketing of its tourism products including handling of visitor services in national parks, national reserves, sanctuaries, etc, to the private sector and communities and concentrate on conservation of wildlife. KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE will participate in community based tourism development in advisory capacities only. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ KATO, a membership organisation that was formed in 1974 and has 250 members, controls 90 per cent of the traffic and destinations of international tourists in Kenya. (c) Local Tourism Education and Marketing as Tool of Poverty Eradication At the beginning of this report it was mentioned that tourism is a strategic industry that has potential for eradication of poverty in the whole of Kenya. In view of the unexploited tourism potential in the western region of Kenya this vision should be taken seriously by sensitizing the entire population about the need to cultivate the right attitudes, hospitality skills and public relations in readiness for participation in viable tourism activities. National stakeholder organizations namely KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE, KTB, KTDC, KTF, TD should be challenged to take the lead in popularizing tourism to the Kenyan population like KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE has done in the last decade. According to this trend of thought, the government has two options to decide upon concerning the Mt. Elgon area: to support the communities of the Mt. Elgon ecosystem to participate in sustainable conservation and development of natural resources and environment; and to maintain vigilance as was done previously to evict the Elgoni people from the caves and forest. We recommend the former option, which implies willingness to support viable community based ecotourism ventures and to support the county council initiative of a conservancy and development of tourism activities based at the Chepkitale moorland. It is based on complementary inputs from two sources. The first input is derived from the empirical evidence collected by observations and discussions with local stakeholders during the field-work in the region and that has been presented and analyzed in chapters three and four. This group of stakeholders consists of private enterprises; local government authorities, NGOs and community based groups. Their main concerns are product development, marketing, sales and provision of services and infrastructure. The second input to the strategy is derived from consultations with the key national stakeholders of the tourism industry in Nairobi. This group of stakeholders comprises of Government of Kenyas parastatal agencies and departments namely KEN YA WILDLIFE SERVICE, KTDC, KTB, Tourism Department, and also Kenya Association of Tour Operators (KATO) representing the private sector. Their main concerns include product development, policy development and administration, international promotion and marketing and financing. Over the next five years or so, it is necessary to identify the feasibility and responsibility for tourism development in the western region. As already mentioned above, it is unlikely that KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE will be playing any promotion or marketing of tourism in future. Therefore the foreseen main role of KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE is to develop and improve Mt. Elgon National Park including the establishment of a second gate and an access road at Kaberwa in collaboration with the Forest Department and the Mt. Elgon County Council. Concerning the roads networks outside the national park it as assumed (but probably it required to be specified) that their development and improvements is the responsibility of the central Government of Kenya and local government authorities. The KTB and the Department of Tourism have an important role to play in development, promotion of globally marketable themes and packages for the new products to be developed. Such market-oriented themes are required for Mt. Elgon National Park itself and for the cultural attractions that will emerge from community ecotourism initiatives. Since both KTB and DoT are relatively new, in the field of destination marketing and operations at regional and grassroots level, new tourism oriented research and design and development capacities will be needed. General Recommendations Develop/promote an exclusive market for cultural tourism through services and appropriate linkages with individual tour operators, MENOWECTO and the KTB. Support diversification of high quality tourism products especially cultural products e.g. dancing, gift and curio products for sale by retail shops as well as bulk sales or consignments to major towns. Encourage participation of visitors in community services around Mt. Elgon National Park and in the nearby towns of Kapsokwony and Kitale. Assist Mt. Elgon County Council to initiate a conservancy for tourism development in the Chepkitale moorlands, including development of an access road through, and a gate at Kaberwa under a new partnership deal between KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE, Forest Department and Mt. Elgon County Council. Develop institutional linkages for marketing of community based ecotourism through local home stay operators. Create general public awareness and popular support of tourism. Support training of community based dancing groups and tour guides in appropriate skills including: Technical names and skills for identification, handling of plants, animals etc. Camping, first aid and emergency techniques; and Public relations, public presentation, marketing, negotiation and packaging, Institutionalize community ecotourism groups and ventures for sustainability. Support the specified improvement and expansion of park infrastructure including making road circuit all-weather, camping site improvements, second gate at Kaberwa and supporting the Chepkitale conservancy. In order to increase local tourism and visitation to Mt. Elgon National Park in particular, KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE should launch a lightly scheduled bus service to familiarize residents and visitors in Kitale with the availability of regular and reliable public transport to and from Mt. Elgon National Park on certain days of the week. CONCLUSION Kenya is known as an international tourist place, but the Western Region of this country has very little tourism activity. There is no particular factor that is well known to be the main hindrance to tourism in the region. The Lack of awareness of tourism by the local communities, negligence or mismanagement of tourist facilities, lack of technical knowledge and insecurity are commonly mentioned. Situated 30 km west of Kitale town and gazetted in 1968, Mt. Elgon National Park is an area of 169 sq. km and is managed by a staff of 75 persons including 9 officers, 45 rangers and 6 drivers. The park receives 3000 visitors yearly. According to Edin Kalla, the Regional Assistant Director, the main challenges of the park are security for wildlife and visitors, increasing human-wildlife conflict along the border with the former ADC farms around the park, now sub-divided and settled by formerly landless people and with non-residential cultivation in the forest reserves, as well as shortages of human and financial resources. Occasionally wild forest fire is a big threat. Ecotourism may seem to have a positive way to it, but in contrast, it has a very grim reality joining it. While having reaped economic benefits from ecotourism, there are instances where people are forced to leave their homes, instances of gross violations of fundamental rights, and increase in the number of environmental hazards. Eco tourism is held as important by those who taking part in it so that coming generations may experience exposure of the environment relatively untouched by human development, and by becoming a part of this brigade, you are doing your bit to keep the planet the way it should be. Hence to make our trip as nice as possible, look into all the aspects that seem significant to you. Duty is backbone on which eco-tourism is based, and performed in the right direction, can to make sure a guilt-free, remember able holiday. In this  Industry  in many countries or the regions big industrial sectors as well as the  Economic industry of today, eco-tourism as an ideal way, it has made some growth in our country and in many local societies and planning a unavoidable item. Nearly two series of ten, the industry at home and foreign, and scholars define the eco-tourism, and noted the need in according with the development strategy, highlighting on the long-term development of   bionomics tourism resources, and established a plan of development, supporting the plan of eco-tourism. In this paper, the original eco-tourism to further examines its definition, and the economic importance of eco-tourism to be.   Ecotourism is undoubtedly a key feature in Kenyas economy. However, this study reveals that the ecotourism sector faces several challenges which include the need to respond to local community development and aspirations, meeting visitors varied expectations, improving management and planning efforts as well as developing effective and efficient infrastructure and services. According to Gakahu (1992), Kenya has a policy that emphasizes those habitats and wildlife populations are to be maintained in a reasonably natural state while catering for economically important activities. This is important for the tourist industry because the naturalness of amenities is what attracts tourists and is what they pay for. Appropriate planning and management is necessary to redress past mistakes and ensure the future welfare of ecotourism. One cannot rule out the possibility that at some point, conservation and economic exploitation, through ecotourism, might become incompatible unless appropriate me chanisms of reconciling them are worked out. Today, the ecological integrity and attractiveness of the Amboseli and Mara conservation areas is being impaired by visitor use. In conclusion, immediate, short-term and long-term planning and management actions need to be taken in order to stop the current poor use and localized overuse of the Amboseli and Mara. The best use of visitor attitudes and use impacts outlined in this study could guide management. This study clearly demonstrates that simply calculating visitor figures is insufficient for management, planning and monitoring responses. If the management cannot deal with the identified problems, then there is need to establish visitor capacity. Visitor impact management programmes therefore can minimise visitor impacts before costly restoration and rehabilitation programs become necessary.